Confucius is famous throughout the world for his philosophy’s enduring impact throughout Chinese history. But his ideas did not exist in a vacuum, and many other brilliant minds challenged or reworked his prescriptions in ancient China.

Justin M. Jacobs, an associate professor of history at American University, analyzes the exciting intellectual ferment of the age of Confucius and the thinkers who followed in his footsteps during the Warring States era (475–221 B.C.): Mozi, Mencius, Zhuangzi, Xunzi, and Han Feizi.

Learn about their perspectives on the meaning of life, the role of the state, the origins of civilization, social relationships, and how to gain and maintain power. The lively exchange of ideas among these philosophers helped define Chinese civilization itself and set the stage for the next two thousand years of dynasties and empires.

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